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Andhrapradesh ICET 2014 Notification was announced application will be going to available on 14 February 2014. ICET 2014 examination will be going to conducted on 23rd March 2014.

                                  ICET 2014 Notification Download                  
                             For Any help Official website:-www.apsche.org

                               How to Get Good Marks In English

"Read the text book thoroughly to understand every unknown word or phrase.
"Read the lesson prescribed out and out to know what the lesson is about.From a clear picture of the lesson or the Poem.
"Always consult a good dictionary to know the meaning of unknown words and phrase.
"Note down the meaning of the words and phrase possibly fixing them in sentences of your own.This help you own theme of the lesson by heart is different from mugging up or cramming you can write the answers on your own provide that you are good at grammar and usage and that you do not sacrifice the spirit of the lesson prescribed.
"Be using the words and phrases in your day to day conversation or interaction with people where ever and when ever necessary and possibly in your letters to friends and relatives (letters are long forgotten?Nobody can help it except you you self).
"First read the question paper fully and speedily to know the frame of the lessons taken from the prescribed syllabus.Then plan or attempt to answer the questions in systematic way.
"Answer the comprehension part first i.e section-B.Read the questions first and then the passages identifying the possible answer in mind.for junior inter both the passages are unseen i.e taken from out of the prescribed text book but for senior inter one passages is from the prescribed non-detailed while the other is unseen.
"Maintain good hand writing.clarity-avoid demonstrability but go for legibility.
"Descriptive type answers(section-A)must be written carefully and legibly mentioning the question number vivdly in the margin provided or made.your answer should not be too long nor too short but to the required length with few words less or more.
"even in the short answers also you can mention the name of the writer or the poet as in the annotations.
"Important points,significant ideas can be underlined in order to catch the attention of the one who values your answer script.
"Try to answer the question completely.Then go to another questions.Do not intermingle the main questions with sub questions.
"Do not or make dirty by rubbing some thing such as ink or a sirty finger across a surface.If you want to strike off something unwanted word or phrase or the excess,do it gently. Remember that a flawless sentence is always better than flawed five.
"AS regards section-C,the answers to questions in that section should be written at one place int he answer booklet separately.the entire  section(c)should be answered at a a stretch and not mixed up with any other section.
"when you attempt the XII question (corrections of sentences),write the entire corrected sentences),write the entire corrected sentence,not merely the corrected part. Siilarly for XIII question (missing letters) also better write the whole word with missed letters after it in brackets.
"Try to complete answering the question paper ten minutes before the given tine so that you can go through your own answer sheet to find out whether there are any  left unanswered or wrongly written or skipped.
"As regards the question XVII (Interpretation of non verbal Items).If You can transform the given information into a diagram or non verbal item,it is always  suggestive.Otherwise,examine the given diagram or non verbal item-what ever you understand from it,just put it in words to make a small simple passage.Both are easy jobs.there is of course a choice.you can write either.
"Question XVIII deals with transcription.you are suggested to attempt to write all the ten words in ordinary spelling so that any five correct ones will be taken making it possible to get all the allotted marks.
"As regards filling out forms you need not copy the form given in the question paper but have to write only the answers according to the numbers mentioned in the form.
"your answers to questions for comprehension must usually be in a word or phrase or a sentence not sentences together
"Lastly,let me end it with what is often humorously said that unless you ink.(=White) whether you think or not,marks will not be awarded on a white paper.the spirit is when you don't know what they asked,you must know what they asked,you must know that what you know must be written.The golden rule is that no question should be left unanswered.

JAM Topics
My Favourite Hobby
A Little Knowledge is a dangerous thing
Where there's will,there's a way
A rolling stone gathers no moss
Rome was not built in a day
My family
Students and socail service
The use of librarary
Newspapers
pen is good weapon
Television
A rainy day
Holiday
A visit to a city
A picnic
A journey
Unforgettable incident
Discipline
Character
Habit is second to nature
The Post office
Our village market
The profession I like
Politeness
An accident
The information revolution
Development in the third world
Cloning humans
Science And technology
The internet
Health
Pen is a strong weapon
Vocational courses
Advantages of village life
Advantages of city life
Trade unious
The importance of English language
influence of religious

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                                    Republic Day Special Speech

                India became a republic on the 20/jan/1950.Republic Day is celebrated every year on this day.It is celebrated in all cities and towns of the country.
         Republic day is celebrated with great pomp and show at NEW DELHI.A large procession is taken out.It starts from Vijaychowk and ends at Red fort.
         A colourfull troop marching is organised on the republic day.troops of  army.Air Force and Navy give a grand show of marching N.C.C cadets of schools to colleges also takes part in the march.
         The President of India arrives at the scene of celebration in a decorated coarch.Guns are fired in his honuor.He takes the salute from the troops of army.AirForce and Navy.
         Military strength of India is shown to the pubilc.Many tanks give a colourfull show of their strength.after that many aeroplanes fly in the sky.They shower flowers on the people.
Rashtrapati Bhanvan and all government buildings are illuminated at night with electric bulbs.
The Celebration of Republic Day Proves that Indian is a great country.we all feel proud of our country.
 
                                               Republic Day Images Download 

Vikrama Simhapuri University Degree BED,BA Time Table 2014 

Vikrama Simhapuri university Examination Time Table 2014,Vikrama Simhapuri University Degree BED\BA Examination Time Table 2014 Available online for Download official Website http://www.simhapuriuniv.ac.in/

                                   Wireless Internet
Introduction
The number of subscribers with wireless access to the Internet through laptops, personal digital assistants (PDAs), cellular phones, pagers, and other wireless devices is rapidly increasing. In 1998, 1.2 million people had wireless web access. IDC predicts that in 2003 the number of wireless Internet subscribers will be 40.4 million. Because this market is growing at such a fast rate, content providers see an opportunity to enter the market by forming partnerships with wireless carriers to deliver data applications to wireless devices. In fact, companies solely dedicated to this type of service are starting to appear.

Analysts predict that e-commerce will be a key application for wireless Internet access. Buying books, trading stocks, reserving hotel rooms and renting cars from anywhere will be easy and consumers will demand these types of services. IDC states that the wireless Internet transaction value in 1998 was $4.3 billion. This number is expected to increase to $38 billion in 2003. IDC predicts that carriers will eventually charge a flat monthly fee for wireless access. Fees for wireless access will drop to be equal to or less than voice services in the next few years, allowing most people to afford wireless access to the Internet.

Wireless Content: Internet Portals
The Strategis Group defines a wireless portal as "a customized point of entry through which a wireless subscriber can access a limited number of Internet sites and services." Many wireless carriers offer internet content to their subscribers through partnerships with some of the large internet content portal companies. For example, AT&T offers its wireless Internet Digital PocketNet subscribers content from ABCNews.com, Bloomberg.com, AOL, and ESPN.com. Sprint PCS partners with AOL, CNN.com, Amazon.com and The Weather Channel. Other wireless carriers, such as USWest and AirTouch, have similar deals. Wireless networks that transmit data at speeds equivalent to or under 56 Kbps, or narrowband networks, are currently more readily available today than wireless broadband networks. Data delivery to wireless devices will be restricted by narrowband networks. Access to graphics and content best accessed through high-speed connections will be limited. Instead, time-sensitive and personalized data delivery, as well as e-commerce activities, will fuel the initial drive for the wireless content market.

Wireless portals will be targeted toward broad consumer markets and toward vertical business markets. It is expected that portals will serve as personalized information aggregators for end-users. Corporate wireless portal solutions may offer secure end-to-end wireless connectivity for business end-users, similar to a wireline intranet. Analysts expect two types of consumer portals to appear. "Push" portals will enable the end-user to set up custom information that they would like delivered to them periodically. "Push and pull" portals will both deliver personalized content to the end-user and allow the end-user to search the portal for information. Corporate wireless portal solutions will provide customized services like time sheet and expense report monitoring and integration, billing capabilities, sales force automation, and access to inventory databases.

                  Touch Screen Seminar Topic 
Introduction
                 A type of display screen that has a touch-sensitive transparent panel covering the screen. Instead of using a pointing device such as a mouse or light pen, you can use your finger to point directly to objects on the screen.
Although touch screens provide a natural interface for computer novices, they are unsatisfactory for most applications because the finger is such a relatively large object. It is impossible to point accurately to small areas of the screen. In addition, most users find touch screens tiring to the arms after long use.
                       Touch-screens are typically found on larger displays, in phones with integrated PDA features. Most are designed to work with either your finger or a special stylus. Tapping a specific point on the display will activate the virtual button or feature displayed at that location on the display.Some phones with this feature can also recognize handwriting written on the screen using a stylus, as a way to quickly input lengthy or complex information

A touchscreen is an input device that allows users to operate a PC by simply touching the display screen. Touch input is suitable for a wide variety of computing applications. A touchscreen can be used with most PC systems as easily as other input devices such as track balls or touch pads. Browse the links below to learn more about touch input technology and how it can work for you.

History Of Touch Screen Technology
A touch screen is a special type of visual display unit with a screen which is sensitive to pressure or touching. The screen can detect the position of the point of touch. The design of touch screens is best for inputting simple choices and the choices are programmable. The device is very user-friendly since it 'talks' with the user when the user is picking up choices on the screen.
             
              Touch technology turns a CRT, flat panel display or flat surface into a dynamic data entry device that replaces both the keyboard and mouse. In addition to eliminating these separate data entry devices, touch offers an "intuitive" interface. In public kiosks, for example, users receive no more instruction than 'touch your selection.
Specific areas of the screen are defined as "buttons" that the operator selects simply by touching them. One significant advantage to touch screen applications is that each screen can be customized to reflect only the valid options for each phase of an operation, greatly reducing the frustration of hunting for the right key or function.

Pen-based systems, such as the Palm Pilot® and signature capture systems, also use touch technology but are not included in this article. The essential difference is that the pressure levels are set higher for pen-based systems than for touch.Touch screens come in a wide range of options, from full color VGA and SVGA monitors designed for highly graphic Windows® or Macintosh® applications to small monochrome displays designed for keypad replacement and enhancement.

Specific figures on the growth of touch screen technology are hard to come by, but a 1995 study last year by Venture Development Corporation predicted overall growth of 17%, with at least 10% in the industrial sector.Other vendors agree that touch screen technology is becoming more popular because of its ease-of-use, proven reliability, expanded functionality, and decreasing cost.

A touch screen sensor is a clear glass panel with a touch responsive surface. The touch sensor/panel is placed over a display screen so that the responsive area of the panel covers the view able area of the video screen. There are several different touch sensor technologies on the market today, each using a different method to detect touch input. The sensor generally has an electrical current or signal going through it and touching the screen causes a voltage or signal change. This voltage change is used to determine the location of the touch to the screen.

                                   SMS Seminar Topic 
Definition
                               Short message service (SMS) is a globally accepted wireless service that enables the transmission of alphanumeric messages between mobile subscribers and external systems such as electronic mail, paging, and voice mail systems. The benefits of SMS to subscribers center around convenience, flexibility, and seamless integration of messaging services and data access. From this perspective, the benefit is to be able to use the handset as an extension of the computer. SMS also eliminates the need for separate devices for messaging, as services can be integrated into a single wireless device-the mobile terminal. SMS provides a time stamp reporting the time of submission of the message and an indication to the handset of whether there are more messages to send (GSM) or the number of additional messages to send.

SMS appeared on the wireless scene in 1991 in Europe. The European standard for digital wireless, now known as the Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM), included short messaging services from the outset.
In North America, SMS was made available initially on digital wireless networks built by early pioneers such as BellSouth Mobility, PrimeCo, and Nextel, among others. These digital wireless networks are based on GSM, code division multiple access (CDMA), and time division multiple access (TDMA) standards. Network consolidation from mergers and acquisitions has resulted in large wireless networks having nationwide or international coverage and sometimes supporting more than one wireless technology. This new class of service providers demands network-grade products that can easily provide a uniform solution, enable ease of operation and administration, and accommodate existing subscriber capacity, message throughput, future growth, and services reliably.

Short messaging service center (SMSC) solutions based on an intelligent network (IN) approach are well suited to satisfy these requirements, while adding all the benefits of IN implementations handling multiple input sources, including a voice-mail system (VMS), Web-based messaging, e-mail integration, and other external short message entities (ESMEs).Communication with the wireless network elements such as the home location register (HLR) and mobile switching center (MSC) is achieved through the signal transfer point (STP). SMS provides a mechanism for transmitting short messages to and from wireless devices. The service makes use of an SMSC, which acts as a store-and-forward system for short messages.

The wireless network provides the mechanisms required to find the destination station(s) and transports short messages between the SMSCs and wireless stations. In contrast to other existing text-message transmission services such as alphanumeric paging, the service elements are designed to provide guaranteed delivery of text messages to the destination. Additionally, SMS supports several input mechanisms that allow interconnection with different message sources and destinations. A distinguishing characteristic of the service is that an active mobile handset is able to receive or submit a short message at any time, independent of whether a voice or data call is in progress (in some implementations, this may depend on the MSC or SMSC capabilities). SMS also guarantees delivery of the short message by the network. Temporary failures due to unavailable receiving stations are identified, and the short message is stored in the SMSC until the destination device becomes available.

SMS is characterized by out-of-band packet delivery and low-bandwidth message transfer, which results in a highly efficient means for transmitting short bursts of data. Initial applications of SMS focused on eliminating alphanumeric pagers by permitting two-way general-purpose messaging and notification services, primarily for voice mail. As technology and networks evolved, a variety of services have been introduced, including e-mail, fax, and paging integration, interactive banking, information services such as stock quotes, and integration with Internet-based applications. Wireless data applications include downloading of subscriber identity module (SIM) cards for activation, debit, profile-editing purposes, wireless points of sale (POSs), and other field-service applications such as automatic meter reading, remote sensing, and location-based services. Additionally, integration with the Internet spurred the development of Web-based messaging and other interactive applications such as instant messaging, gaming, and chatting.

                                 Optical Mouse Seminar Topic

                                An optical mouse is an advanced computer pointing device that uses a light-emitting diode (LED), an optical sensor, and digital signal processing (DSP) in place of the traditional mouse ball and electromechanical transducer. Movement is detected by sensing changes in reflected light, rather than by interpreting the motion of a rolling sphere.

The optical mouse takes microscopic snapshots of the working surface at a rate of more than 1,000 images per second. If the mouse is moved, the image changes. The tiniest irregularities in the surface can produce images good enough for the sensor and DSP to generate usable movement data. The best surfaces reflect but scatter light; an example is a blank sheet of white drawing paper. Some surfaces do not allow the sensor and DSP to function properly because the irregularities are too small to be detected. An example of a poor optical-mousing surface is unfrosted glass.

In practice, an optical mouse does not need cleaning, because it has no moving parts. This all-electronic feature also eliminates mechanical fatigue and failure. If the device is used with the proper surface, sensing is more precise than is possible with any pointing device using the old electromechanical design. This is an asset in graphics applications, and it makes computer operation easier in general.

                      Net Access Via Cable TV Seminar Topic
   
Definition

Internet is a network of networks in which various computers connect each other through out the world. The connection to other computers is possible with the help of ISP (Internet Service Provider). Each Internet users depend dialup connections to connect to Internet. This has many disadvantages like very poor speed, may time cut downs etc. To solve the problem, Internet data can be transferred through Cable networks wired to the user computer. Different type connections used are PSTN connection, ISDN connection and Internet via Cable networks. Various advantages are High availability, High bandwidth to low cost, high speed data access, always on connectivity etc.

The huge growth in the number of Internet users every year has resulted in the traffic congestion on the net, resulting in slower and expensive Internet access. As cable TV has a strong reach to homes, it is the best medium for providing the Internet to house - holds with faster access at feasible rates.

We are witnessing an unprecedented demand from residential and business customers, especially in the last few years, for access to the Internet, corporate intranets and various online information services. The Internet revolution is sweeping the country with a burgeoning number of the Internet users. As more and more people are being attracted towards the Internet, traffic congestion on the Net is continuously increasing due to limited bandwidths resulting in slower and expensive Internet access.

The number of household getting on the Internet has increased exponentially in the recent past. First time internet users are amazed at the internet's richness of content and personalization, never before offered by any other medium. But this initial awe last only till they experienced the slow speed of internet content deliver. Hence the popular reference "World Wide Wait"(not world wide web). There is a pent-up demand for the high-speed (or broad band) internet access for fast web browsing and more effective telecommuting.

India has a cable penetration of 80 million homes, offering a vast network for leveraging the internet access. Cable TV has a strong reach to the homes and therefore offering the Internet through cable could be a scope for furthering the growth of internet usage in the homes.

The cable is an alternative medium for delivering the Internet services in the US, there are already a million homes with cable modems, enabling the high-speed internet access over cable. In India, we are in the initial stages. We are experiencing innumerable local problems in Mumbai, Bangalore and Delhi, along with an acute shortage of international Internet connectivity.

Accessing the Internet on the public switched telephone networks (PSTN) still has a lot of problems. Such as drops outs. Its takes along time to download or upload large files. One has to pay both for the Internet connectivity as well as for telephone usages during that period. Since it is technically possible to offer higher bandwidth by their cable, home as well as corporate users may make like it. Many people cannot afford a PC At their premises. Hardware obsolescence in the main problem to the home user. Who cannot afford to upgrade his PC every year? Cable TV based ISP solution s offer an economic alternative.

                             Optical Computer Seminar Topic 

The mantra of our electronic age has been 'faster, smaller, better' for over two decades now. Today, computer lies at the very core of our society. As we try to squeeze more from a silver of silicon, the cost of chip making has become prohibitively expensive. Chip barriers are now down to three or four atoms apart. So far the ride has been good, but at some point, something has to give.
At that point, incremental approach to silicon technology would not be enough - we will need a new approach. Many new technologies abound, but the most promising among them is the use of light.
An Optical Computer is a hypothetical device that uses visible light or infrared beams, rather than electric current, to perform digital computations.
An electric current flows at only about 10 percent of speed of light. By applying some of the advantages of visible and/or IR networks at the device and component scale, a computer can be developed that can perform operations very much times faster than a conventional electronic computer.

                    Modular Computing Seminar Topic 

Definition

I T's Challenge

In the past three tears, the world has changed for information technology groups. In the late 1990s, the predominant problem was deploying equipment and software quickly enough to keep up with demand for computing. While the tech sector boomed on Wall Street, money was no object. IT budgets swelled and the numbers of computers in data centers grew exponentially.

Now, in the early 2000s, the picture is very different. IT budgets are flat down, yet business demand for IT services continues to escalate. This combination of more demand and constrained budgets has compelled IT groups to consider new approaches to IT infrastructure, approaches that offer more flexibility and lower cost of ownership.
The common theme is cost cutting. In today's world, profits come less easily than in 1990s. Competitors are more experienced, and competition is more intense. Corporations that trim costs while providing great service will prevail over those that can't.

IT plays a major role in this competitive situation. As competition becomes more intense, so does the pressure on IT to cut costs and boost contribution. Now more than ever, large corporations are using their computing assets as tools to pull ahead of the competition.

Winning through Modularity

As Janet Matsuda, SGI's director of Graphics Product Marketing, says: "Modularity offers both savings and scalability so that customers don't waste their money on what they don't want and can spend it on what they do want."
Debra Goldfarb, group vice president at analyst firm IDC, agrees: "Modular computing empowers end users to build the kind of environment that they need not only today but over time.

Doing More With Less

To keep up with computing demand while operating within restricted budgets, IT must find ways to optimally use computing resources and reduce people costs. There are many areas of improvement.

Cost of Over-Provisioning

As data centers have moved toward servers and away mainframes, IT has found that some mainframe capabilities weren't available on servers. A glaring example is that smaller servers were unable to rapidly obtain more processing power to accommodate peaks in computing demand.As applications became more transitional, for example with customers entering information via the Web, these peaks in computing demand became more visible.

During peak demand, customers saw their transactions slow down. In situations where these transactions affect the bottom line, as when customers enter purchases, prompt processing becomes vital to the business.As the number of customers using Web services has increased, the peaks in computing demand became more intense and more frequent. Consequently, customers more frequently saw declines in performance.

                    Mobile Communications seminar Topic 

                          Roke Manor Research is a leading provider of mobile telecommunications technology for both terminals and base stations. We add value to our clients' projects by reducing time-to-market and lowering production costs, and provide lasting benefits through building long-term relationships and working in partnership with our customers.
We have played an active role in cellular communications technology since the 1980's, working initially in GSM and more recently in the definition and development of 3G (UMTS). Roke Manor Research has over 200 engineers with experience in designing hardware and software for 3G terminals and base stations and is currently developing technology for 4G and beyond. We are uniquely positioned to provide 2G, 3G and 4G expertise to our customers.
The role of Roke Manor Research engineers in standardisation bodies (e.g. ETSI and 3GPP) provides us with intimate knowledge of all the 2G and 3G standards (GSM, GPRS, EDGE, UMTS FDD (WCDMA) and TD-SCDMA standards). Our engineers are currently contributing to the evolution of 3G standards and can provide up-to-the-minute implementation advice to customers.

                                     Mobile IP Address Seminar Topic 
Introduction 

While Internet technologies largely succeed in overcoming the barriers of time and distance, existing Internet technologies have yet to fully accommodate the increasing mobile computer usage. A promising technology used to eliminate this current barrier is Mobile IP. The emerging 3G mobile networks are set to make a huge difference to the international business community. 3G networks will provide sufficient bandwidth to run most of the business computer applications while still providing a reasonable user experience.

However, 3G networks are not based on only one standard, but a set of radio technology standards such as cdma2000, EDGE and WCDMA. It is easy to foresee that the mobile user from time to time also would like to connect to fixed broadband networks, wireless LANs and, mixtures of new technologies such as Bluetooth associated to e.g. cable TV and DSL access points.

In this light, a common macro mobility management framework is required in order to allow mobile users to roam between different access networks with little or no manual intervention. (Micro mobility issues such as radio specific mobility enhancements are supposed to be handled within the specific radio technology.) IETF has created the Mobile IP standard for this purpose.

Mobile IP is different compared to other efforts for doing mobility management in the sense that it is not tied to one specific access technology. In earlier mobile cellular standards, such as GSM, the radio resource and mobility management was integrated vertically into one system. The same is also true for mobile packet data standards such as CDPD, Cellular Digital Packet Data and the internal packet data mobility protocol (GTP/MAP) of GPRS/UMTS networks. This vertical mobility management property is also inherent for the increasingly popular 802.11 Wireless LAN standard.

Mobile IP can be seen as the least common mobility denominator - providing seamless macro mobility solutions among the diversity of accesses. Mobile IP is defining a Home Agent as an anchor point with which the mobile client always has a relationship, and a Foreign Agent, which acts as the local tunnel-endpoint at the access network where the mobile client is visiting. Depending on which network the mobile client is currently visiting; its point of attachment Foreign Agent) may change. At each point of attachment, Mobile IP either requires the availability of a standalone Foreign Agent or the usage of a Co-located care-of address in the mobile client itself.

The concept of "Mobility" or "packet data mobility", means different things depending on what context the word is used within. In a wireless or fixed environment, there are many different ways of implementing partial or full mobility and roaming services. The most common ways of implementing mobility (discrete mobility or IP roaming service) support in today's IP networking environments includes simple "PPP dial-up" as well as company internal mobility solutions implemented by means of renewal of IP address at each new point of attachment. The most commonly deployed way of supporting remote access users in today's Internet is to utilize the public telephone network (fixed or mobile) and to use the PPP dial-up functionality.

                        Laser Communications seminar topic

 
Definition
Laser communications offer a viable alternative to RF communications for inter satellite links and other applications where high-performance links are a necessity. High data rate, small antenna size, narrow beam divergence, and a narrow field of view are characteristics of laser communications that offer a number of potential advantages for system design.

Lasers have been considered for space communications since their realization in 1960. Specific advancements were needed in component performance and system engineering particularly for space qualified hardware. Advances in system architecture, data formatting and component technology over the past three decades have made laser communications in space not only viable but also an attractive approach into inter satellite link applications.

Information transfer is driving the requirements to higher data rates, laser cross -link technology explosions, global development activity, increased hardware, and design maturity. Most important in space laser communications has been the development of a reliable, high power, single mode laser diode as a directly modulable laser source. This technology advance offers the space laser communication system designer the flexibility to design very lightweight, high bandwidth, low-cost communication payloads for satellites whose launch costs are a very strong function of launch weigh. This feature substantially reduces blockage of fields of view of most desirable areas on satellites. The smaller antennas with diameter typically less than 30 centimeters create less momentum disturbance to any sensitive satellite sensors. Fewer on board consumables are required over the long lifetime because there are fewer disturbances to the satellite compared with heavier and larger RF systems. The narrow beam divergence affords interference free and secure operation.


Laser communication systems offer many advantages over radio frequency (RF) systems. Most of the differences between laser communication and RF arise from the very large difference in the wavelengths. RF wavelengths are thousands of times longer than those at optical frequencies are. This high ratio of wavelengths leads to some interesting differences in the two systems. First, the beam-width attainable with the laser communication system is narrower than that of the RF system by the same ratio at the same antenna diameters (the telescope of the laser communication system is frequently referred as an antenna). For a given transmitter power level, the laser beam is brighter at the receiver by the square of this ratio due to the very narrow beam that exits the transmit telescope. Taking advantage of this brighter beam or higher gain, permits the laser communication designer to come up with a system that has a much smaller antenna than the RF system and further, need transmit much less power than the RF system for the same receiver power. However since it is much harder to point, acquisition of the other satellite terminal is more difficult. Some advantages of laser communications over RF are smaller antenna size, lower weight, lower power and minimal integration impact on the satellite. Laser communication is capable of much higher data rates than RF.

The laser beam width can be made as narrow as the diffraction limit of the optic allows. This is given by beam width = 1.22 times the wavelength of light divided by the radius of the output beam aperture. The antennae gain is proportional to the reciprocal of the beam width squared. To achieve the potential diffraction limited beam width a single mode high beam quality laser source is required; together with very high quality optical components throughout the transmitting sub system. The possible antennae gain is restricted not only by the laser source but also by the any of the optical elements. In order to communicate, adequate power must be received by the detector, to distinguish the signal from the noise. Laser power, transmitter, optical system losses, pointing system imperfections, transmitter and receiver antennae gains, receiver losses, receiver tracking losses are factors in establishing receiver power. The required optical power is determined by data rate, detector sensitivity, modulation format ,noise and detection methods.

                                          Intellegent RAM Seminar Topic

INTRODUCTION
                        Given the growing processor-memory performance gap and the awkwardness of high capacity DRAM chips, we believe that it is time to consider unifying logic and DRAM. We call such a chip an "IRAM", standing for Intelligent RAM, since most of transistors on this merged chip will be devoted to memory. The reason to put the processor in DRAM rather than increasing the on-processor SRAM is that DRAM is in practice approximately 20 times denser than SRAM. (The ratio is much larger than the transistor ratio because DRAMs use 3D structures to shrink cell size). Thus, IRAM enables a much larger amount of on-chip memory than is possible in a conventional architecture.

Although others have examined this issue in the past, IRAM is attractive today for several reasons. First, the gap between the performance of processors and DRAMs has been widening at 50% per year for 10 years, so that despite heroic efforts by architects, compiler writers, and applications developers, many more applications are limited by memory speed today than in the past. Second, since the actual processor occupies only about onethird of the die ,the upcoming gigabit DRAM has enough capacity that whole programs and data sets can fit on a single chip. In the past, so little memory could fit onchip with the CPU that IRAMs were mainly considered as building blocks for multiprocessors. Third, DRAM dies have grown about 50% each generation; DRAMs are being made with more metal layers to accelerate the longer lines of these larger chips. Also, the high speed interface of synchronous DRAM will require fast transistors on the DRAM chip. These two DRAM trends should make logic on DRAM closer to the speed of logic on logic fabs than in the past.


POTENTIAL ADVANTAGES OF IRAM

1) Higher Bandwidth. A DRAM naturally has extraordinary internal bandwidth, essentially fetching the square root of its capacity each DRAM clock cycle; an on-chip processor can tap that bandwidth.The potential bandwidth of the gigabit DRAM is even greater than indicated by its logical organization. Since it is important to keep the storage cell small, the normal solution is to limit the length of the bit lines, typically with 256 to 512 bits per sense amp. This quadruples the number of sense amplifiers. To save die area, each block has a small number of I/O lines, which reduces the internal bandwidth by a factor of about 5 to 10 but still meets the external demand. One IRAM goal is to capture a larger fraction of the potential on-chip bandwidth.

2) Lower Latency. To reduce latency, the wire length should be kept as short as possible. This suggests the fewer bits per block the better. In addition, the DRAM cells furthest away from the processor will be slower than the closest ones. Rather than restricting the access timing to accommodate the worst case, the processor could be designed to be aware when it is accessing "slow" or "fast" memory. Some additional reduction in latency can be obtained simply by not multiplexing the address as there is no reason to do so on an IRAM. Also, being on the same chip with the DRAM, the processor avoids driving the offchip wires, potentially turning around the data bus, and accessing an external memory controller. In summary, the access latency of an IRAM processor does not need to be limited by the same constraints as a standard DRAM part. Much lower latency may be obtained by intelligent floor planning, utilizing faster circuit topologies, and redesigning the address/data bussing schemes. The potential memory latency for random addresses of less than 30 ns is possible for a latency-oriented DRAM design on the same chip as the processor; this is as fast as second level caches. Recall that the memory latency on the AlphaServer 8400 is 253 ns.

These first two points suggest IRAM offers performance opportunities for two types of applications:
1. Applications with predictable memory accesses, such as matrix manipulations, may take advantage of the potential 50X to 100X increase in IRAM bandwidth; and
2. Applications with unpredictable memory accesses and very large memory "footprints", such as data bases, may take advantage of the potential 5X to 10X decrease in IRAM latency.

3) Energy Efficiency. Integrating a microprocessor and DRAM memory on the same die offers the potential for improving energy consumption of the memory system. DRAM is much denser than SRAM, which is traditionally used for on-chip memory. Therefore, an IRAM will have many fewer external memory accesses, which consume a great deal of energy to drive high-capacitance off-chip buses. Even on-chip accesses will be more energy efficient, since DRAM consumes less energy than SRAM. Finally, an IRAM has the potential for higher performance than a conventional approach. Since higher performance for some fixed energy consumption can be translated into equal performance at a lower amount of energy, the performance advantages of IRAM can be translated into lower energy consumption

4) Memory Size and Width. Another advantage of IRAM over conventional designs is the ability to adjust both the size and width of the on-chip DRAM. Rather than being limited by powers of 2 in length or width, as is conventional DRAM, IRAM designers can specify exactly the number of words and their width. This flexibility can improve the cost of IRAM solutions versus memories made from conventional DRAMs.

5) Board Space. Finally, IRAM may be attractive in applications where board area is precious --such as cellular phones or portable computers--since it integrates several chips into one.

                                             Image Processing 

The various Medical images acquired directly from various instruments are in the AVI format, which reduces the easy control of image display without conversion to medical image standard, that is the DICOM format. The purpose of this project is to develop software to handle online data acquisition from medical equipments like Ultra Sound machine, control the display rate, convert the AVI image acquired from the Medical equipment directly to DICOM image with patient's detail's got from the user, freeze the AVI image frame of interest, convert the freezed AVI frame to Bitmap image, convert this Bitmap image to DICOM image with patient's details. This software is highly reliable, efficiently handles memory and very user friendly.

Medical equipments like Ultra Sound, CT etc… have images at their output in the AVI file format, which are acquired with the respective probes. These AVI images acquired are stored. The software captures this AVI image, displays them frame-by-frame in succession and converts them to DICOM image with required patient's details obtained from the Specialist during conversion. The frame of interest can be freezed and converted to Bitmap image, which can also be viewed on a separate window with options to brighten, darken, change the color combination, invert the image and restore the image. The converted DICOM image can be viewed on any Standard DICOM viewer. Mostly all the DICOM viewer will have provision to view the patient's details entered during conversion.

OBJECTIVE
To help the doctor view a particular frame of interest captured from a medical equipment which is usually an AVI image and to enable the doctor to manipulate the frame for correct diagnosis and provide efficient treatment.

MEDICAL IMAGING
From Ophthalmology and radiology to orthodontics, image processing touches the medical field in many ways. The ability to visualize and interactively manipulate three-dimensional objects derived from sets of two-dimensional MRI and CAT scan (now shortened to CT scan) slices has changed the way we deal with medicine. MRI stands for nuclear magnetic resonance imaging.

DISADVANTAGE OF EXISTING SYSTEM
There is no AVI viewer that facilitates the doctors to manipulate the medical image captured from the equipment. All AVI viewers available just displays the frames in predetermined time intervals and time of display of each frame cannot be controls as per the physicians requirement. Frame at a particular given time can be displayed but, it wont help the doctor capture the exact frame that is required to find out the exact defect.

PROPOSED SYSTEM
This system will prove to be user friendly as this captures the medical AVI image, grabs the required header information, converts them to DICOM file format and stores it along with the patient's details, physicians details, etc… so that any physician can diagnose the patient without any other further details. Moreover there are many DICOM viewer available with many image processing provision.

Steps To Control Image

->Capture the image from an medical equipment which will normally be in AVI (Audio/Video Interleaved) format.
->Analyze the header details of the AVI image.
-> Copy the required header details into the DICOM header format.
->If the length of the header is greater than zero it is considered to be valid.
->Find the start of frame in the AVI file, check for its length, if data is valid copy the frame into DICOM file else skip the frame.
->View the DICOM file in appropriate DICOM viewer.